Human udp-glucuronosyltransferases: isoform selectivity and kinetics of 4-methylumbelliferone and 1-naphthol glucuronidation, effects of organic solvents, and inhibition by diclofenac and probenecid.

The glucuronidation kinetics of the prototypic substrates 4-methylumbelliferone (4MU) and 1-naphthol (1NP) by human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) 1A1, 1A3, 1A4, 1A6, 1A7, 1A8, 1A9, 1A10, 2B7, 2B15, and 2B17 were investigated. Where activity was demonstrated, inhibitory effects of diclofenac, probenecid, and the solvents acetone, acetonitrile, dimethyl sulfoxide, ethanol, and methanol were characterized. All isoforms except UGT1A4 glucuronidated 4MU, whereas all but UGT 1A4, 2B15, and 2B17 metabolized 1NP. However, kinetic models varied with substrate (for the same isoform) and from isoform to isoform (with the same substrate). Hyperbolic (Michaelis-Menten), substrate inhibition, and sigmoidal kinetics were variably observed for both 4MU and 1NP glucuronidation by the various UGTs. K(m) or S(50) (sigmoidal kinetics) and V(max) values varied 525- (8-4204 microM) and 1386-fold, respectively, for 4MU glucuronidation, and 1360- (1.3-1768 microM) and 37-fold, respectively, for 1NP glucuronidation. The use of a two-site model proved useful for those reactions exhibiting non-Michaelis-Menten glucuronidation kinetics. The organic solvents generally had a relatively minor effect on UGT isoform activity. UGT 2B15 and 2B17 were most susceptible to the presence of solvent, although solvent-selective inhibition was occasionally observed with other isoforms. Diclofenac and probenecid inhibited all isoforms, precluding the use of these compounds for the reaction phenotyping of xenobiotic glucuronidation pathways in human tissues. Diclofenac and probenecid K(i) values, determined for selected isoforms, ranged from 11 to 52 microM and 96 to 2452 microM, respectively. Overall, the results emphasize the need for the careful design and interpretation of kinetic and inhibition studies with human UGTs.

Metabolism and cytotoxicity of chlorpropham (CIPC) and its essential metabolites in isolated rat hepatocytes during a partial inhibition of sulphation and glucuronidation reactions: a comparative study.

The changes in metabolism and cytotoxicity of chlorpropham (CIPC) and its major metabolites, 4-hydroxychlorpropham (4-OH CIPC), 3-chloroaniline, and 3-chloroacetanilide were investigated in isolated rat hepatocyte suspensions after a partial inhibition of sulphation and glucuronidation and the two reactions combined in an attempt to assess the part of each of them in the enhanced CIPC toxicity observed in vivo after D-galactosamine treatment. With sulphation and glucuronidation effective, CIPC has a cytolytic effect and reduces intracellular ATP and K+ level while 4-OH CIPC has a weak cytolytic effect but modifies ATP and K+ level in a greater extent than CIPC. Inhibition of sulphation does not affect the cytotoxicity of CIPC or 4-OH CIPC because there is a compensatory increase in the amount of 4-OH CIPC glucuronide formed and the level of free 4-OH CIPC always remain low. In contrast, when incubations are carried out with either CIPC or 4-OH CIPC, the presence of D-galactosamine leads to a decrease of glucuronide and sulphate conjugates accompanied, respectively, by a 3.6-fold and 6. 9-fold increase of the free 4-OH CIPC level in the culture medium. This alteration of the metabolism is followed by a marked reduction of ATP synthesis with a concomitant modification of cell permeability. The cytolytic effect is due to CIPC itself, whereas the effect on energy supply was attributed to free 4-OH CIPC. The results demonstrate a combined effect of free 4-OH CIPC and D-galactosamine on intracellular ATP level that could account for the partial inhibition of sulphation. This change in the CIPC metabolism could explain the increased CIPC toxicity observed in vivo after D-galactosamine pretreatment.

Atovaquone inhibits the glucuronidation and increases the plasma concentrations of zidovudine.

The pharmacokinetic interaction between atovaquone, a 1,4-hydroxynaphthoquinone, and zidovudine was examined in an open, randomized, three-phase crossover study in 14 patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Atovaquone (750 mg every 12 hours) and zidovudine (200 mg every 8 hours) were given orally alone and in combination. Atovaquone significantly increased the area under the zidovudine concentration-time curve (AUC) (1.82 +/- 0.62 micrograms.hr/ml versus 2.39 +/- 0.68 micrograms.hr/ml; p < 0.05) and decreased the oral clearance of zidovudine (2029 +/- 666 ml/min versus 1512 +/- 464 ml/min; p < 0.05). In contrast, atovaquone tended to decrease the AUC of zidovudine-glucuronide (7.31 +/- 1.51 micrograms.hr/ml versus 6.89 +/- 1.42 micrograms.hr/ml; p < 0.1) and significantly decreased the ratio of AUC zidovudine-glucuronide/AUC zidovudine (4.48 +/- 1.94 versus 3.12 +/- 1.1; p < 0.05). The maximum concentration of zidovudine-glucuronide was significantly lowered by atovaquone (5.7 +/- 1.5 versus 4.57 +/- 0.97 micrograms/ml; p < 0.05). Zidovudine had no effect on the pharmacokinetic disposition of atovaquone. Atovaquone appears to increase the AUC of zidovudine by inhibiting the glucuronidation of zidovudine.

Reduction and glucuronidation of naftazone by human and rat liver microsomes.

Reduction and glucuronidation of the vasoprotectant drug, naftazone, by human and rat liver microsomes and by recombinant UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) stably expressed in V79 cells were studied. The oxo group was first reduced in the presence of NADPH or NADH, and was subsequently readily glucuronidated on the phenolic moiety leading to a 1 beta-O-glucuronide, as revealed from MS and by proton and 13C-NMR. Glucuronide extracted from the urine of rats treated with the drug presented the same structure. In all enzyme systems tested, NADH was the most efficient electron donor, when compared with NADPH. The reaction was strongly inhibited by quercitrin, a specific inhibitor of carbonyl reductase. Attempts to isolate the reduced intermediate were unsuccessful because of its marked instability. In humans, a large interindividual variation for the formation of glucuronide was observed with microsomes of seven different liver samples (3.98 +/- 3.22 nmol/min.mg). In rat, glucuronidation of reduced naftazone was strongly induced (12-fold) by 3-methylcholanthrene and, to a lesser extent (2.6-fold) by phenobarbital, but was not affected by clofibrate. In addition, liver microsomes from Gunn rats, which present a genetic defect in bilirubin and phenol UGTs could not form glucuronide of reduced naftazone. The drug, after addition of NADH, was a substrate of the human liver recombinant UGT1*6 that presents a strict specificity toward planar phenolic substances, but not that of UGT2B4 and UGT2B1 expressed in V79 fibroblasts. The reducing step by the endogenous V79 cellular reductase was rate-limiting. In conclusion, the powerful inducing effect exerted by 3-methylcholanthrene, the lack of glucuronidation in the Gunn rat and the ability of UGT1*6 encoded by the UGT1 gene to glucuronidate reduced naftazone suggest that, in humans and in the rat, the compound is metabolized by a UGT isoform (UGT1*6 and the rat orthologous form) belonging to family 1, with a restricted specificity toward the drug.

Influence of probenecid on the urinary excretion rates of the diastereomeric benoxaprofen glucuronides.

A major biotransformation pathway for many NSAIDs from the group of optically active 2-arylpropionic acids is the conjugation with D-glucuronic acid, forming diastereomers. These conjugates of the S-(+)-and the R-(-)-enantiomers can be separated directly, e.g., by ion-pair chromatography on a C18-column using a mixture of tetrabutylammonium buffer pH 2.5 and acetonitrile as mobile phase. In man about 40% of the dose was recovered in urine as glucuronides (ratio S:R = 2.2) within 96 hours of p.o. administration of racemic drug. When probenecid, which is known to influence the elimination of several acidic drugs, was administered in addition, the amount excreted as glucuronides during 4 days was clearly reduced. Furthermore, the enantiomeric ratio was changed significantly, possibly because of an increase of stereoinversion due to the reduced drug clearance.

Effect of glomerulopressin on several isolated veins and arteries of different species.

The effect of glomerulopressin was investigated in several isolated veins and arteries of dog and also in veins of rabbit, rat, and hamster. Glomerulopressin contracted some of the dog veins: jugular, extrahepatic porta, femoral, cava, iliac, splenic, and had no effect in pulmonary, mesenteric, and renal vein. It was also active in some dog arteries: Iliac, femoral, renal, and had no effect in aorta, hepatic, splenic and pulmonary artery. In the rat it increased the frequency of the spontaneous rhythmic contraction of the extrahepatic porta. No effect was observed in any of the rabbit veins assayed: cava, jugular, iliac and extrahepatic porta, nor in the extrahepatic portal vein of the hamster. In another group of experiments, inhibitors of phospholipase A2, chlorpromazine and mepacrine were added to the bath. These inhibitors blocked the effect of glomerulopressin in the three dog vessels that were assayed: jugular, extrahepatic porta and iliac artery. These results show that glomerulopressin induces a contraction in several, but not all, veins and arteries, and that its effect is mediated by the liberation of arachidonic acid.

Effect of glomerulo pressin on several isolated veins and arteries of different species

Se estudió el efecto de la glomerulopresina en varias venas aisladas de perro, conejo, hamster y rata y en arterias de perro. La glomerulopresina produjo contractión en las venas de perro: yugular, porta femoral, cava, ilíaca, esplénica y no tuvo efecto en las venas: pulmonar, mesentérica y renal. La glomerulopresina también produjo una contractión en algunas arterias de perro: ilíaca, femoral, renal y no tuvo efecto en la aorta, hepática, esplénica y pulmonar. En la rata aumentó la frecuencia del ritmo de las contracciones espontáneas de la vena porta. No se observó ningún efecto en las venas de conejo estudiadas: cava, yugular, ilíaca y porta. Tampoco tuvo efecto en la porta de hamster. En un grupo de experimentos se ensayó clorpromazina y mepacrina, in hibidores de la fosfolipasa A2. Estos inhibidores bloquearon la acción de la glomerulopresina en los tres vasos ensayados: yugular, porta y arteria ilíaca de perro. Estos resultados muestran que la glomerulopresina produce una contracción en varios, pero no en todos los vasos estudiados y sugieren que este efecto es mediado por la liberación de ácido araquidónico (AU)

Effect of glomerulo pressin on several isolated veins and arteries of different species

Se estudió el efecto de la glomerulopresina en varias venas aisladas de perro, conejo, hamster y rata y en arterias de perro. La glomerulopresina produjo contractión en las venas de perro: yugular, porta femoral, cava, ilíaca, esplénica y no tuvo efecto en las venas: pulmonar, mesentérica y renal. La glomerulopresina también produjo una contractión en algunas arterias de perro: ilíaca, femoral, renal y no tuvo efecto en la aorta, hepática, esplénica y pulmonar. En la rata aumentó la frecuencia del ritmo de las contracciones espontáneas de la vena porta. No se observó ningún efecto en las venas de conejo estudiadas: cava, yugular, ilíaca y porta. Tampoco tuvo efecto en la porta de hamster. En un grupo de experimentos se ensayó clorpromazina y mepacrina, in hibidores de la fosfolipasa A2. Estos inhibidores bloquearon la acción de la glomerulopresina en los tres vasos ensayados: yugular, porta y arteria ilíaca de perro. Estos resultados muestran que la glomerulopresina produce una contracción en varios, pero no en todos los vasos estudiados y sugieren que este efecto es mediado por la liberación de ácido araquidónico

Breast-milk jaundice.

PIP: The inhibiting agent of UDP-glucuronyl transferase (UDPGT), inhibition of which is associated with breast milk jaundice syndrome in infants, was thought to be 3(alpha),20(beta)-pregnandiol. European researchers have begun in vitro investigations to discover the inhibiting substance, and all studies have confirmed it is a nonesterified fatty acid. The strong association between breast milk jaundice, elevated values of nonesterified fatty acids, and unstimulated lipase in UDPGT-inhibitory milk was confirmed by electrophoretic technique. The mechanisms responsible for production of prolonged unconjugated hyperbilirubeinemia in infants, however, is not understood. 2 theories have been offered: 1) that milk triglyceride digestion before the milk reaches the duodenum leads to early absorption of most of the liberated glycerol that might otherwise be used by intestinal epithelium to resynthesize triglycerides; or 2) inhibitory human milk may facilitate the enterohepatic recirculation of bilirubin (reabsorption of bilirubin from intestinal lumen). Breast-feeding per se does not result in an increased incidence of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia; it is rather those infants who receive insufficient amounts of breast milk who develop the condition.^ieng

Polyol-pathway enzymes of human brain. Partial purification and properties of aldose reductase and hexonate dehydrogenase.

Aldose reductase and hexonate dehydrogenase were isolated from human brain and partially purified. The two enzymes exhibited distinctive substrate-specificity profiles with a variety of aldoses,and aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes. Aldose reductase exhibited a high affinity for DL-glyceraldehyde (Km of 62 microM) and a low affinity (Km of 90 mM) for glucose, the physiological substrate of the polyol pathway. Hexonate dehydrogenase exhibited a relatively low affinity for D-glucuronate (Km of 4.6 mM) and a very low affinity for glucose (Km of 390 mM). Both enzymes exhibited a high specificity for NADPH, and both were inhibited competitively by NADP+. Hexonate dehydrogenase was inhibited by iodoacetate, iodoacetamide, N-ethylmaleimide and p-chloromercuribenzoate. Preincubation with 2-mercaptoethanol resulted in activation. Both enzymes were inhibited by a number of barbiturates (barbital, phenobarbital and pentobarbital) and by the central-nervous-system drugs diphenylhydantoin and ethosuccinimide. The substrate specificity and pattern of inhibition suggest that the two enzymes isolated correspond to two of four previously reported aldehyde reductases isolated from human brain.